4Repertoire: Common Music Notation

4.2.1The Role of the Measure Element

Arguably, the most important element of the CMN module is the measure element. It is used as a structural unit inside section elements and acts as a container for ‘events’ from the model.eventLike class, such as notes, chords and rests as well as ‘control events’ from the model.controlEventLike class, such as slurs and indications of dynamics.

The following example demonstrates the use of the measure element:

<section>

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer>

<chord dur="1">

<note oct="5" pname="c"/>

<note oct="4" pname="g"/>

<note oct="4" pname="e"/>

</chord>

</layer>

</staff>

<staff n="2">

<layer>

<note dur="1" oct="3" pname="c"/>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

</section>

A measure slices the flow of a score or part into chunks that normally comply with a duration determined by the meter defined within a preceding scoreDef or staffDef element. Each staff in the source material is represented by a staff element. As the order of the staff elements in the file does not have to reflect their order in the original document, to eliminate confusion they should always refer to a staffDef element, using either an n or def attribute. Whereas the def attribute uses the xs:anyURI datatype, the n value refers to the closest preceding staffDef or layerDef with the same value in its n attribute.

<staffDef n="3" xml:id="cmn_staffDef1"/>

<!-- later in the file: -->

<staff def="#cmn_staffDef1">

<!-- @def refers to staffDef with this identifier -->

<!-- staff content -->

</staff>

<!-- or: -->

<staff n="3">

<!-- @n refers to staffDef with this numeric label -->

<!-- staff content -->

</staff>

Each staff may hold a number of layer elements to reflect multiple ‘voices’. Just as with staff, the order of the layer elements in the file does not have to reflect their original order in the document, so they also possess n and def attributes for association with the appropriate layer definition.

<staffDef>

<layerDef n="1" xml:id="cmn_layerDef1"/>

</staffDef>

Later in the file:

<section xml:id="cmn_staffDef1">

<staff def="#cmn_staffDef1">

<layer def="#cmn_layerDef1">

<!-- layer content -->

</layer>

</staff>

<!-- OR: -->

<staff n="3">

<layer n="1">

<!-- layer content -->

</layer>

</staff>

</section>

4.2.2Defining Score Parameters for CMN

When encoding a score in CMN, MEI relies on the following elements from the 2 Shared Concepts in MEI module:

A scoreDef element is used to specify the common parameters of a score, e.g., key and meter. The most important attributes for this purpose are:

The following example describes a score in common time with 3 flats:

<scoreDef keysig="3f" meter.count="4" meter.sym="common" meter.unit="4"/>

For encoding more complex time signatures, simple mathematical symbols such as asterisks and plus signs are allowed in meter.count.

Non-standard key signatures have to be encoded with a keySig element.

Other attributes allow the description of default page and system margins and fonts for text and music:

There are other attributes that allow the specification of many further details of a score. These are available from the element definitions accessible at scoreDef, staffDef, staffGrp and layerDef.

When content is provided for scoreDef, it must contain a staffGrp element. This element is used to gather individual staves and other staff groups. This is useful for collecting instrumental or vocal groups in a large score, such as woodwinds, brasses, etc., and for assigning a shared label to the group, using the label and labelAbbr subelements. The staffGrp element is also used for the two staves of a grand staff. The bar.thru attribute on staffGrp allows one to specify whether bar lines are drawn across the space between staves of that group or only on the staves themselves.

A staffDef element is used to describe an individual staff of a score or performer part. It bears most of the attributes described above. The label and labelAbbr subelements may be used for providing staff labels for the first and subsequent systems.

Every staffDef must have an n attribute with an integer as its value. The first occurrence of a staffDef with a given number must also indicate the number of staff lines via the lines attribute.

The order of staffDef elements within scoreDef follows the order of staves in the source document or planned rendering. The individual staff elements within a measure refer to these staffDef declarations using their own n attribute values. Therefore, the encoding order of staves within a measure does not have to mimic the order of the staffDef elements with scoreDef.

In addition to the parameters inherited from scoreDef, the following attributes are important for staffDef elements:

A staff with a tenor clef is encoded as in the following example:

<staffDef clef.dis="8" clef.dis.place="below" clef.line="2" clef.shape="G"/>

In the case of transposing instruments, the key-related attributes described above may be used to override the written key expressed in the scoreDef element. As a basic principle, MEI always captures written pitches, so the trans.diat and trans.semi attributes may be used to indicate the number of diatonic steps and semitones to calculate sounded pitch from written pitch. The piccolo and E♭ clarinet staves in the example below utilize these attributes:

<scoreDef meter.count="6" meter.unit="8">

<staffGrp>

<!-- Piccolo sounds 12 semitones higher than written (and encoded in MEI). -->

<staffDef clef.line="2" clef.shape="G" key.mode="major" keysig="4f" label="Piccolo" label.abbr="Picc." lines="5" n="1" trans.diat="0" trans.semi="12" xml:id="cmn.P1"/>

<staffDef clef.line="2" clef.shape="G" key.mode="major" keysig="4f" label="Flute" label.abbr="Fl." lines="5" n="2" xml:id="cmn.P2"/>

<staffDef clef.line="2" clef.shape="G" key.mode="major" keysig="4f" label="Oboe" label.abbr="Ob." lines="5" n="3" xml:id="cmn.P3"/>

<staffDef clef.line="4" clef.shape="F" key.mode="major" keysig="4f" label="Bassoon" label.abbr="Bsn." lines="5" n="4" xml:id="cmn.P4"/>

<!-- Clarinet sounds a minor third (two diatonic steps or three semitones) higher than written. -->

<staffDef clef.line="2" clef.shape="G" key.mode="major" keysig="1f" label="Clarinet in E♭" label.abbr="E♭ Cl." lines="5" n="5" trans.diat="2" trans.semi="3" xml:id="cmn.P5"/>

</staffGrp>

</scoreDef>

There are a number of additional elements that can be used as children of staffDef in order to describe additional features of the staff, such as the color of a clef or a key signature added in a different hand. These elements include:

With the exception of label, these elements may also occur within the flow of musical events captured in a layer, since they are members of model.eventLike. In the layer context they function as milestones and affect all following content assigned to the layer (even in subsequent measures) until their information is again overridden either by the same element bearing different information or a staffDef or scoreDef. In this context, it is also possible to combine them with the elements described in chapters 11.1 Critical Apparatus and 11.2 Editorial Markup of these Guidelines.

Such flexibility as this may require close inspection of an encoding to retrieve the correct definitions for a given staff. As a general rule, the closest preceding and most specific element provides this information: For example, a keySig in the preceding measure is more relevant than a staffDef at the beginning of the section, which is more relevant than a scoreDef at the beginning of the score. However, a section-specific scoreDef that provides only information about the meter does not override the more specific information about key signature gathered from a staffDef for a transposing instrument.

Every staffDef may contain a number of layerDef elements, which may be used to establish default values for the distinct layers sharing one staff. MEI does not use the term ‘voice’ to describe these ‘musical threads’ because that term implies continuity across measure boundaries. Given the sometimes arbitrary relationships between these threads from measure to measure as well as across staves, MEI uses the more neutral term ‘layer’.

4.2.3Special cases in staff definitions

Usually clef, key, and meterSig apply to a whole staff.

In some rare cases one can find different meters in different layers, as seen in Maurice Ravel’s Oiseaux tristes.

In these cases it is necessary to encode each meterSig for the staff as child of the corresponding layerDef:

<staffGrp bar.thru="true">

<staffDef n="1">

<layerDef n="1">

<meterSig count="4" unit="4" sym="common"/>

</layerDef>

<layerDef n="2">

<meterSig count="12" unit="8"/>

</layerDef>

</staffDef>

<staffDef n="2" lines="5">

<layerDef n="1">

<meterSig count="4" unit="4" sym="common"/>

</layerDef>

</staffDef>

</staffGrp>

4.2.4Re-definition of Score Parameters

Sometimes it is necessary to re-define the parameters of a score or a staff. For example, a score may change keys, the number of staves, or use different layout settings. Likewise, a staff may change its clef, change the number of layers, or become invisible. To accommodate these changes, staffDef is allowed to occur in the following locations:

• within the description of staff groups; that is, in staffGrp,
• within the content of a measure,
• between measures; that is, directly within section and ending elements, and
• between sections and endings; that is, directly within a score or part element.

In addition, scoreDef is allowed to occur:

• within sections and endings; that is, inside section and ending elements; and
• between sections and endings; that is, directly within a score or part.

It is also possible to include scoreDef and staffDef in staves and layers when the MEI All schema is in use; however, this practice is not recommended for the CMN repertoire.

The following example shows how to change the key and meter signatures within a score. The keysig.cancelaccid attribute may be used to control the position of the cancellation accidentals of the key signature change, while the keysig.visible can be used to hide the key signature entirely.

<score>

<scoreDef keysig="4f" meter.sym="common">

<staffGrp>

<staffDef n="1" lines="5" clef.shape="G" clef.line="2"/>

</staffGrp>

</scoreDef>

<section>

<measure right="dbl">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<chord dur="1">

<note oct="4" pname="a" accid.ges="f"/>

<note oct="5" pname="c"/>

<note oct="5" pname="e" accid.ges="f"/>

</chord>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

<scoreDef keysig="0" keysig.cancelaccid="none"/>

<measure right="dbl">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<chord dur="1">

<note oct="4" pname="a"/>

<note oct="5" pname="c"/>

<note oct="5" pname="e"/>

</chord>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

<scoreDef keysig="2s" keysig.cancelaccid="before" meter.sym="cut"/>

<measure>

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<chord dur="1">

<note oct="4" pname="b"/>

<note oct="5" pname="d"/>

<note oct="5" pname="f" accid.ges="s"/>

</chord>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

<measure right="dbl">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<multiRest num="3"/>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

<scoreDef keysig.visible="false" keysig="5f" meter.count="4" meter.unit="4"/>

<measure right="dbl">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<chord dur="1">

<note oct="4" pname="g" accid.ges="f"/>

<note oct="4" pname="b" accid.ges="f"/>

<note oct="5" pname="d" accid.ges="f"/>

</chord>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

<scoreDef keysig="2s" keysig.cancelaccid="before-bar"/>

<measure right="end">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<chord dur="1">

<note oct="4" pname="b"/>

<note oct="5" pname="d"/>

<note oct="5" pname="f" accid.ges="s"/>

</chord>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

</section>

</score>

4.2.5Notes, Chords and Rests in CMN

4.2.6Timestamps and Durations

MEI offers multiple ways of defining onsets and offsets of timed musical events such as notes and slurs. The most common and most musician-friendly approach to this is through the use of a combination of the attributes tstamp and dur, which are made available by the attribute classes att.timestamp.log (inherited by att.controlEvent) and att.timestamp2.log, both from the shared module.

The timestamp (tstamp) of a musical event is calculated in relation to the meter of the current measure and resembles the so-called ‘beat’ position. In a common time measure with four quarter notes, the timestamp of each quarter equals its beat position in the measure: The first quarter has a timestamp of 1, the second has a timestamp of 2, and so on. MEI defines the value of tstamp as a real number; the second eighth note position in a measure would thus be represented by the value of "1.5". The range of possible values is defined as starting with zero and ending with the number of metrical units in a measure (the ‘numerator’ in a time signature) + 1. This allows the capture of all graphical positions starting from the left bar line ('0') and ending with the right bar line of the measure ('5', in the case of 4/4 time).

For expressing durations, MEI offers the dur attribute. This attribute is described in section 4.2.5.1.1 Basic Usage of Notes in CMN.

For ‘spanning’ elements like slurs, which are members of the model.controlEventLike class, it is often more intuitive to record two timestamps – one for the onset of the event and one for its termination. Because the termination of the event may be in a succeeding measure, the second timestamp (tstamp2) has a slightly different datatype than the one marking the initiation of the event. Its datatype is constrained to values following the formula "xm + y", where x is the number of full measures that this particular feature lasts (or the number of bar lines crossed) and y is the timestamp in the target measure where the feature ends. The timestamp is expressed using the same logic as described above. For example, a value of "0m+3" in 4/4 time indicates that the element bearing this attribute, a slur for example, ends on beat 3 of the same measure where it started. A value of "1m+1.5" would indicate an end on the second eighth note of the following measure. In 6/8 time, the value "2m+3" means that the feature ends two measures later on the third eighth note.

4.3.1Beams

A very common feature of music from the CMN repertoire is the beaming of eighth or shorter notes. MEI provides two elements for the explicit encoding of features joined by beams.

Use of the beam element is straightforward. The beamed notes, rests, or chords are simply enclosed by the beam element:

<layer>

<beam>

<note dur="8"/>

<note dur="8"/>

</beam>

</layer>

Whereas in music notation every note value shorter than an eighth adds another beam (sometimes referred to as ‘secondary beams’), in MEI only one beam element is used, no matter the durations of the contained notes. The visual rendition of a set of beamed notes is presumed to be handled by rendering processes.

<layer>

<!-- … -->

<beam>

<note dur="16"/>

<note dur="32"/>

<note dur="32"/>

<note dots="1" dur="16"/>

<note dur="32"/>

</beam>

<!-- … -->

</layer>

From the 19th century onwards, it became quite common to break secondary beams to increase readability of longer beamed passages. The optional breaksec attribute on notes and chords under the beam may be used to encode the breaking of secondary beams after the note or chord bearing the attribute. The value of breaksec indicates the number of continuous beams. For example:

<layer>

<beam>

<note dots="1" dur="8"/>

<note dur="16"/>

</beam>

<beam>

<note dur="32"/>

<note dur="32"/>

<note breaksec="1" dur="16"/>

<note dur="32"/>

<note dur="32"/>

<note dur="32"/>

<note dur="32"/>

</beam>

</layer>

In the music of the second half of the 20th century, it is quite common to indicate acceleration or deceleration using converging (feathered) beams as in the image below:

The encoding of such a beam is accomplished using the form attribute of the beam, which allows the following values:

acc: Beams gradually diverge.

rit: Beams gradually converge (into one).

mixed: Beams diverge and converge arbitrarily.

norm: The beam is rendered as usual (default).

<layer>

<!-- … -->

<beam form="acc">

<note dur="8"/>

<note/>

<note/>

<note/>

<note/>

<note dur="32"/>

</beam>

<!-- … -->

</layer>

The duration of notes, rests, or chords under a beam which carries the form attribute with a value of ‘acc’, ‘rit’, or ‘mixed’ must be treated specially. The first and last contained elements must specify a duration which matches the number of beams displayed at the point of these events. In the case of a ‘mixed’ beam, each event at the point of change in the number of secondary beams must carry a dur attribute. Beams like this may be encoded thusly:

<layer>

<!-- … -->

<beam form="mixed">

<note dur="8"/>

<note dur="8"/>

<note/>

<note/>

<note/>

<note dur="32"/>

</beam>

<beam form="mixed">

<note dur="32"/>

<note/>

<note/>

<note/>

<note/>

<note dur="8"/>

<note dur="8"/>

</beam>

<!-- … -->

</layer>

Beams that connect events on different staves may be encoded in two different ways. First, a single-layer approach may be taken that treats the events lying under the beam as logically belonging to the same layer as the initial event but visually ‘displaced’ to an adjacent staff. In the example above from Moritz Moszkowski’s 12 Pianoforte Studies for the left hand, Op. 92, MoszWV 117 this method makes even from a semantic perspective perfect sense. It can be achieved with an additional staff attribute value that contradicts the ‘normal’ staff placement indicated by the n attribute of their ancestor staff.

<staff n="2">

<layer>

<!-- … -->

<beam place="mixed">

<note dur="16" oct="3" pname="f" accid.ges="s"/>

<note dur="16" oct="3" pname="b"/>

<note dur="16" oct="4" pname="d" accid="s" staff="1"/>

<note dur="16" oct="4" pname="f" accid.ges="s" staff="1"/>

</beam>

<!-- … -->

</layer>

</staff>

In other contexts however, a staff-by-staff methodology may be employed in which the notes are encoded according to the staff on which they appear. This encoding style requires that each beam element account for the total time encompassed by the beam; that is, each beam must use one or more space elements to account for the time occupied by notes on the opposing staff. For example, the time used by the first two notes of the beam must be represented on staff number 1 and the time taken by the last two notes of the beam must be filled on staff number 2.

<measure>

<staff n="1">

<layer>

<beam beam.with="below">

<space dur="8"/>

<note oct="4" pname="d"/>

<note pname="f"/>

</beam>

</layer>

</staff>

<staff n="2">

<layer>

<beam beam.with="above">

<note dur="16" oct="3" pname="g"/>

<note pname="b"/>

<space dur="8"/>

</beam>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

Downstream processing needs are the determining factor in the choice between the two alternative encoding methods.

Due to the potential problem of overlapping hierarchies, the beam element only allows the encoding of beams that do not cross bar lines. When beams cross bar lines, the use of the beamSpan element is required. Unlike beam, the beamSpan element does not contain the beamed notes as its children. Instead, it references the xml:id values of all affected notes in its plist attribute and denotes the initial and terminal notes of the beam using startid and endid attributes. This configuration allows beams to cross measure boundaries. The following example from Erwin Schulhoff’s Violin Sonata demonstrates a typical example of such hierarchy-crossing beams:

<beamSpan startid="#note1" endid="#note4" plist="#note1 #note2 #note3 #note4"/>

In addition to the explicit encoding of beams accommodated by the beam and beamSpan elements and the beam attribute, MEI allows for specification of default beaming behavior using the following attributes on scoreDef, staffDef, and layerDef:

beam.group: Provides an example of how automated beaming (including secondary beams) is to be performed.

beam.rests: Indicates whether automatically-drawn beams should include rests shorter than a quarter note duration.

The beam.group attribute can be used to set a default beaming pattern to be used when no beaming is indicated at the layer level. It must contain a comma-separated list of time values that add up to a measure in the current meter, e.g., 4,4,4,4 in 4/4 time indicates that each quarter note worth of shorter notes should be beamed together. Parentheses can be used to indicate sub-groupings of secondary beams. For example, (4.,4.,4.) in 9/8 meter indicates one primary beam per measure with secondary beams broken at each dotted quarter duration, while (4,4),(4,4) in 4/4 will result in a measure of 16th notes being rendered with a primary beam covering all the notes and secondary beams for each group of four 16th notes.

The beam.group attribute is available on scoreDef, staffDef, and layerDef elements, making it possible to set different beaming patterns for each of these. Also, the beaming pattern can be changed anywhere score parameters may be changed, for example, at the start of sections. This beaming "directive" can be overridden by using beam, beamSpan, or beam attributes as described above. If none of these beaming specifications is used, then no beaming is implied. Default beaming can be explicitly ‘turned off’ by setting beam.group to an empty string.

4.3.2Ties, Slurs and Phrase Marks

One of the most specific features of CMN is the use of ‘curved lines’ which connect notes. These lines are used to indicate various musical features, depending on their context.

A tie is a curved line connecting two notes of the same pitch. The purpose of a tie is to join the durations of both notes, so that the first note sounds for the combined duration. In other words, there is only one onset for both notes.

In MEI, ties can be encoded in different ways, depending on the level of detail that the encoder wants to preserve. The simplest solution is to use the tie attribute found on note and chord.

<layer>

<note dur="2" oct="4" pname="f" tie="i"/>

<note dots="1" dur="4" oct="4" pname="f" tie="t"/>

</layer>

This attribute allows three values:

i (initial): Marks the start of a tie

m (medial): Marks a participant in a tie other than the first or last

t (terminal): Marks the end of a tie

The scope of the tie attribute is the musical layer; that is, a tie started in one layer may only be ended by a subsequent musical event with a tie attribute with an m or t value in the same layer. The tie-terminating event may lie in the following measure.

<measure n="1">

<!-- staff 1 omitted -->

<staff n="2">

<layer n="1">

<chord dur="16">

<note oct="2" pname="f"/>

<note oct="1" pname="f"/>

</chord>

<beam>

<note oct="2" pname="f" tie="i"/>

<note oct="2" pname="a" tie="i"/>

<note oct="3" pname="c" tie="i"/>

</beam>

<chord dur="4">

<note oct="3" pname="f" tie="i"/>

<note oct="3" pname="c" tie="m"/>

<note oct="2" pname="a" tie="m"/>

<note oct="2" pname="f" tie="m"/>

</chord>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

<measure n="2">

<!-- staff 1 omitted -->

<staff n="2">

<layer n="1">

<chord dur="16">

<note oct="3" pname="f" tie="t"/>

<note oct="3" pname="c" tie="t"/>

<note oct="2" pname="a" tie="t"/>

<note oct="2" pname="f" tie="t"/>

</chord>

<!-- … -->

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

<!-- measures 3 and 4 omitted -->

When tie is used on chords, it functions as a shorthand indication for multiple tie markings; that is, a separate tie is drawn for every pitch in the chord that remains unchanged in the succeeding chord.

<staff>

<layer>

<chord dur="4" tie="i">

<note pname="f"/>

<note pname="c"/>

<note pname="a"/>

</chord>

<chord dur="4" tie="t">

<note pname="f"/>

<note pname="c"/>

<note pname="a"/>

</chord>

</layer>

</staff>

This is equivalent to the following, more verbose version:

<staff>

<layer>

<chord dur="4">

<note pname="f" tie="i"/>

<note pname="c" tie="i"/>

<note pname="a" tie="i"/>

</chord>

<chord dur="4">

<note pname="f" tie="t"/>

<note pname="c" tie="t"/>

<note pname="a" tie="t"/>

</chord>

</layer>

</staff>

A slur is a curved line that connects a group of notes of different pitch. It normally indicates that an instrument-specific performance technique should be applied to the affected notes. For example, in notation for winds, the notes should be played in one breath, while a single bow is indicated for string instruments.

In MEI, slurs may be encoded in a similar way to ties: note and chord bear a slur attribute that allows the commencement or ending of a slur at this element. The allowed values, however, are slightly different: The i, m or t are followed by a single digit in the range 1 to 6, as in the following example:

<layer>

<note accid="s" dur="4" oct="4" pname="f" slur="i1"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="g" slur="m1"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="a" slur="t1"/>

</layer>

The reason for this difference is that slurs, unlike ties, may overlap, so that a second slur may start while the first slur is still ongoing. The digit indicates the level of nesting of slurs on the note; ‘1’ indicates no nesting, while ‘2’ indicates the existence of 2 slurs in which this note participates, and so on. In the example below, the second and third quarter notes lie under 2 slurs. The second note is covered by the slur that begins on the preceding note and by the one that it starts. The third note is affected by the slur that begins on note one and by the one that starts on note two.

<staff>

<layer>

<note dur="2" oct="4" pname="g" slur="i1"/>

<note dur="8" oct="4" pname="a" slur="i2"/>

<note dur="8" oct="4" pname="g" slur="t2"/>

<note accid="s" dur="4" oct="4" pname="f" slur="t1"/>

</layer>

<layer>

<note dots="1" dur="2" oct="3" pname="b" slur="i1"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="d" slur="t1"/>

</layer>

</staff>

To support analytical operations, slur may take on more than one value. For example, the example above may be more explicitly encoded as:

<staff>

<layer>

<note dur="2" oct="4" pname="g" slur="i1"/>

<note dur="8" oct="4" pname="a" slur="m1 i2"/>

<note dur="8" oct="4" pname="g" slur="m1 t2"/>

<note accid="s" dur="4" oct="4" pname="f" slur="t1"/>

</layer>

<layer>

<note dots="1" dur="2" oct="3" pname="b" slur="i1"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="d" slur="t1"/>

</layer>

</staff>

In this encoding, the notes in the beamed group are marked as participating in two slurs – one connecting just the beamed notes and one connecting the first and last notes of the layer. In ‘nested’ slurs like this, the function of the slurs is usually different. Here, the slur connecting the 8th notes indicates legato performance, while the longer slur functions as a phrase mark.

While ties are not normally allowed to cross layers or staves, slurs may. The following example demonstrates how cross-staff slurs may be encoded using the slur attribute:

<measure>

<staff>

<layer>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="g" slur="i1"/>

<note dur="8" oct="4" pname="a" slur="m1"/>

<note dur="8" oct="4" pname="g" slur="m1"/>

<note accid="s" dur="4" oct="4" pname="f" slur="m1"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<staff>

<layer>

<note dots="1" dur="2" oct="3" pname="b"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="d" slur="t1"/>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

Slurs and ties that cross system or page breaks are often split into two separate symbols for rendering. One slur or tie ends at the last bar line, another one starts at the beginning of the new system. MEI expects this to be the default rendering behavior, so that in situations like these, the regular tie or slur attributes are sufficient to describe both curved lines resulting from the split.

Sometimes, however, one of these two symbols is missing in the document, or the encoder wants to provide additional (often visual) information about the slur or tie. In these cases, using an attribute is not an adequate solution. Therefore, MEI offers dedicated tie and slur elements. A third element, phrase, is used to identify a unified melodic idea (in German: Phrasierungsbogen), whereas the slur element is used as a generic element for all curved lines (in German: Bogensetzung) except ties. All three elements have nearly identical models.

Another reason for using elements instead of attributes for ties, slurs, and phrase marks is that only elements may be combined with the functionality provided in chapters 11.2 Editorial Markup and 11.1 Critical Apparatus of these Guidelines.

Although these elements are allowed within a layer to accommodate unmeasured notation, by convention in CMN they are normally placed inside measure, after the encoding of staves, alongside other so-called ‘control events’.

<measure>

<staff n="1">

<layer>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="c"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="f"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="g"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="c"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<slur/>

<tempo/>

<dynam/>

</measure>

Obviously, to be complete the slur in the above example needs to be ‘attached’ to the notes somehow. The ‘vertical assignment’ can be indicated for the example above using the staff and layer attributes like so:

<slur layer="1" staff="1"/>

For the ‘horizontal assignment’, the encoder may choose between two different mechanisms. The first uses two timestamp attributes as described in section 4.2.6 Timestamps and Durations. The start and end points of the slur may be indicated thusly:

<slur layer="1" staff="1" tstamp="1" tstamp2="0m+4"/>

By using tstamp and tstamp2 attributes, the encoder denotes a rather loose connection – the slur (or tie) is attached to a certain position in the measure, not to a specific note or chord. If the encoder wants to specify a close connection to a particular event, the startid and endid attributes may be used instead. Here, the xml:ids of the first and last note of the slur are referenced. This mechanism also allows the crossing of layers and staves.

For human readability, it is recommended to encode slur, tie and phrase features in the measure where they begin; that is, in the measure that holds the element referenced by startid. On the other hand, for machine processability, it may be desirable to place slur, tie, and phrase elements in the measure where they end or even in the last measure regardless of their beginning and ending points in the music. This last option makes all references contained within these elements ‘back references’. Back references are necessary when using processing software that treats the encoded file as a stream; that is, programs that process the file without creating an in-memory representation of its contents.

When using the tie, slur or phrase elements, the curvature of the line may be described using the curvedir, bulge and bezier attributes. Whereas the first attribute allows only specification of the slur’s vertical placement, the others give increasingly more precise control of the curve.

If the encoder wishes to draw attention to the appearance of a slur or tie in a given source, the facs attribute may be used instead of (or in addition to) the curve description attributes to point to a graphic image or a zone within an image (see 12.1 Facsimiles).

4.3.3Dynamics in CMN

Common Music Notation provides two different methodologies for expressing the volume of a note, phrase, section, etc. The first is a verbal instruction providing such information in human language, possibly in an abbreviated form. An example is the word piano, indicating a quiet volume, often abbreviated as p. In MEI, verbal instructions like this are encoded using the dynam element from the Shared module (see chapter 2 Shared Concepts in MEI):

<dynam>p</dynam>

By convention, dynam elements, like slur and other elements belonging to the model.controlEventLike class, are encoded at the end of the measure to which they belong. This requires dynam to be assigned to a certain staff using the staff attribute, whose value refers to the target element’s n attribute. In the absence of other information, all layers within the staff are assumed to have the same dynamic marking.

<dynam staff="1" tstamp="1">p</dynam>

However, when the layers of a staff have different dynamic indications, the layer attribute may be used to associate a dynamic marking with a particular layer:

<measure>

<dynam layer="1" tstamp="1">p</dynam>

<dynam layer="2" tstamp="1">mf</dynam>

</measure>

A suitable MIDI value may be assigned to a dynamic marking using the val attribute:

<dynam layer="1" place="above" staff="2" tstamp="1" val="84">f</dynam>

The location of a dynamic marking in relation to a staff may be specified using the place attribute, which may be given as above, below or within the staff or even between two staves:

<dynam place="above" staff="1" tstamp="1">p</dynam>

<!-- or -->

<dynam place="between" staff="1 2" tstamp="2">f</dynam>

Dynamics must also be associated with a particular time point in a measure, using the tstamp, or with a particular event, using the startid attribute. Linking a control event with measures and events is discussed in section 4.2.6 Timestamps and Durations:

<measure>

<staff n="1">

<!-- content omitted -->

</staff>

<staff n="2">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="2" oct="4" pname="c" stem.mod="2slash"/>

<note dur="2" oct="4" pname="e" stem.mod="2slash"/>

</layer>

<layer n="2">

<!-- content omitted -->

</layer>

</staff>

<dynam layer="1" place="above" staff="2" tstamp="1">p</dynam>

<dynam layer="1" place="above" staff="2" tstamp="2.5">cresc. poco a poco</dynam>

</measure>

Dynamics which do not have an explicit endpoint are often referred to as ‘instantaneous’. On the other hand, some dynamic directions indicate a continuous change that must have a defined end point. It is possible to specify the logical scope of continuous dynamic marks using the attributes tstamp2, dur, dur.ges, or endid. Additionally a corresponding ending value for MIDI output may be given in the val2 attribute.

To capture the fact that the crescendo in the example above continue until the first beat of the next measure, they may be marked:

<!-- using the tstamp2 attribute -->

<dynam place="above" staff="2" tstamp="2.5" tstamp2="1m+1">cresc. poco a poco</dynam>

<!-- using the endid attribute -->

<dynam endid="#ID_of_ending_note" place="above" staff="2" tstamp="2.5">cresc. poco a poco</dynam>

Any combination of tstamp, startid, tstamp2, and endid attributes may be used to define the scope of a dynamic, although the tstamp and tstamp2 or the startid and endid combinations are the most logical combinations. For example, the following alternatives are all possibilities for encoding up a crescendo. The choice of attributes is often task or processor dependent.

<!-- tstamp attribute indicates starting point, dur attribute marks the end -->

<dynam place="above" staff="2" tstamp="3" dur="1">cresc. poco a poco</dynam>

<!-- tstamp attribute indicates starting point, endid attribute marks the end -->

<dynam endid="#ID_of_last_note" place="above" staff="2" tstamp="3">cresc. poco a poco</dynam>

<!-- startid attribute indicates starting point, tstamp2 attribute marks the end -->

<dynam place="above" staff="2" startid="#ID_of_first_note" tstamp2="1m+3">cresc. poco a poco</dynam>

<!-- startid attribute indicates starting point, endid attribute marks the end -->

<dynam endid="#ID_of_last_note" place="above" staff="2" startid="#ID_of_first_note">cresc. poco a poco</dynam>

All musical elements affected by the dynam may be explicitly specified using the plist attribute, which contains xml:id attribute value references:

<dynam endid="#note4" place="above" plist="#note1 #note2 #note3 #note4" staff="2" startid="#note1">cresc. poco a poco</dynam>

It is recommended that the list of references in plist include all participants in the dynamic marking, including the first and last notes as in the preceding example, even though they are duplicated by startid and endid attributes.

In addition to verbal instructions, Common Music Notation uses graphical symbols to indicate ‘continuous’ dynamics. These crescendo and decrescendo (or diminuendo) symbols are encoded in MEI using the hairpin element. It also is a member of the model.controlEventLike class, which means it too is used just before the close of a measure element, following the encoding of all staves. The required attribute form specifies the direction of the symbol by taking one of two possible values: cres (growing louder) or dim (getting softer).

<hairpin form="cres"/>

Marking the logical extent of hairpins is possible using the same attributes as for dynam.

<hairpin form="cres" layer="1" place="above" staff="2" tstamp="2.5" tstamp2="1m+1"/>

The following example from Béla Bartók’s Mikrokosmos, Sz.107 shows a diminuendo between two staves that begins on the first beat (in the current measure) and ends on the first one in the penultimate measure. The duration is highlighted with a dashed line, which can be indicated with the extender attribute.

<dynam tstamp="1" tstamp2="2m+1" extender="true" place="between" staff="1 2">dim.</dynam>

4.3.4Tuplets

Tuplets indicate a localized change of meter; that is, a given duration in the regular meter is divided between a group of notes with irregular (according to the current meter) rhythmic values. The most common tuplet is a so-called ‘triplet’, in which three notes take the time normally occupied by two.

The relation of the tuplet to the underlying meter is specified using the num and numbase attributes, where num specifies the number of replacing notes and numbase specifies the number of notes of the same duration to be replaced. For example, when three eighth notes replace one quarter note in common time, num takes a value of "3", whereas numbase reads "2", because a quarter note in common time is normally divided into two eighths. When three quarters replace two in the same meter, numbase also reads "2". The combination of these attributes may be read as "3 in the time of 2" in either case.

<tuplet num="3" numbase="2">

<note dur="16"/>

<note dur="16"/>

<note dur="16"/>

</tuplet>

The duration of the entire tuplet may be encoded using the usual ‘power of 2’ values, e.g., 1, 2, 4, etc., in the dur attribute if necessary.

<layer>

<tuplet dur="2" num="3" numbase="2">

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="g"/>

<note accid="s" dur="4" oct="4" pname="f"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="g"/>

</tuplet>

<note dur="2" oct="4" pname="d"/>

</layer>

Tuplets are often highlighted using brackets above or below the affected notes. The presence and position of these brackets can be encoded using the bracket.place (above / below) and bracket.visible (true / false) attributes.

Usually, however, tuplets are rendered with a bracket (bracket.visible="true") and a single number (num.format="count" and num.visible="true"), as seen in the example above. However, the number-to-numbase ratio may be provided in addition to, or in some cases as a replacement for, the bracket. The num.format attribute indicates whether a plain number (the value of num) or a ratio (comprised of num and numbase, e.g., "3:2") should be displayed and num.visible indicates the general presence of such a number.

Further visual control comes with the num.place and bracket.place attributes, that allow specific placement of the number and the bracket above or below the staff.

In addition to note elements, tuplet may contain other elements, such as rest or space, to match the content of a source document or an intended rendering. In particular, the beam element is allowed so that custom beaming may be indicated, e.g., a septuplet may be divided into a group of three plus a group of four notes.

The tuplet element may also be used for repetition of the same pitch; that is, a single note or chord may be the only content of the tuplet. In some cases, optical music recognition software may treat these instances as bowed tremolandi due to the knowledge of the complete semantics of the notation at the time of recognition. However, marking these as tuplets is the recommended practice.

In some situations, a tuplet is made up of events in different measures. As this raises the issue of non-concurrent hierarchies, it is not possible to encode such situations with the tuplet element described above. Therefore, MEI offers the tupletSpan element, which is member of the model.controlEventLike class. It is nested inside of measure, following all the measure’s staff children. It uses the same attributes as tuplet to describe tuplets, but instead of nesting all affected notes inside itself, it references the xml:id values of all affected notes in its plist attribute and the initial and terminal notes of the tuplet using startid and endid attributes. This configuration allows tuplets to cross beams or measure boundaries. The following example demonstrates a typical example of such hierarchy-crossing tuplets:

<tupletSpan num="3" numbase="2" startid="#rest" endid="#note2" plist="#rest #note1 #note2"/>

4.3.5Articulation and Performance Instructions in CMN

This section introduces elements and attributes which may hold CMN-specific performance instructions. The functionality described herein is related to the artic attribute and artic element introduced in 2 Shared Concepts in MEI. The following elements are relevant in this context:

4.3.6Instrument-specific Symbols in CMN

CMN contains a number of symbols which are closely related to a specific instrument. MEI offers elements for three of these symbols, namely breath marks, harp pedal diagrams, and piano pedals.

4.3.7Ossia

The term ossia, Italian for "or", denotes an alternative for a certain passage which is provided by the composer without any preference of one alternative over another. An ossia often provides a simpler (easier to perform) version of the original content. Another frequent use case for ossia is the provision of indications about performance practice, such as an alternative version with ornamentation written out in full. In all cases, it is up to the performer to choose between the alternatives.

Most often an ossia is rendered above the main staff on a reduced-size staff. Sometimes, however, the alternate material occurs on the same staff as the primary text, but in a separate layer. In this case, the alternative material is usually rendered in small-sized notation on the normal-sized staff. For both situations, MEI offers the ossia element, which may be nested either inside measure to reflect an ossia on a separate staff, or inside staff to reflect an inline ossia in a separate layer. The following example demonstrates an ossia on a separate staff:

<measure>

<staff n="1">

<!-- first staff, without ossia -->

</staff>

<ossia>

<staff>

<!-- alternative content on reduced-size staff -->

</staff>

<staff n="2">

<!-- original content on regular staff -->

</staff>

</ossia>

<staff n="3">

<!-- third staff, without ossia -->

</staff>

</measure>

The example above demonstrates that only one of the two staff elements within ossia has an n attribute. This mechanism allows one to distinguish between the "regular" and the "alternative" content: The one bearing the n attribute goes in line with the preceding measure’s staff, the other one is printed in reduced size above. In this case, the vertical order of staves follows document order: The top-most staff is encoded as the first child, the lowest comes last. In combination with the presence of the n attribute, this allows the capture of multiple simultaneous ossia staves.

All staves within ossia, even the alternative ones without a direct reference, obey the definitions of the associated staffDef, which can be derived from the value of the n attribute. Alternatively, a separate staffDef may be given at the beginning of the contained layer element(s).

In case of an inline ossia, the whole setup of elements moves down one step in the hierarchy, as seen in the following example:

<measure>

<staff n="1">

<!-- content omitted -->

</staff>

<staff n="2">

<ossia>

<layer n="1">

<!-- original content in regular layer -->

</layer>

<layer>

<!-- alternative content in separate layer -->

</layer>

</ossia>

</staff>

<staff n="3">

<!-- content omitted -->

</staff>

</measure>

4.3.8Cue

Cue notes are smaller notes that usually occur in an orchestral or vocal part and are not to be played or sung by the corresponding musician, but by other instruments or singers. Cue notes are used for orientation, i.e., to follow the music during longer pauses and to find the correct re-entry point more easily. In MEI the cue attribute is available to indicate such notes.

<rest dur="8" cue="true"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="f" cue="true"/>

Most often cue notes occur in a group rather than one by one. This is because usually a whole layer of another part is inserted as a cue. Therefore, a complete layer can also be marked as cue.

<score>

<scoreDef>

<staffGrp>

<staffDef n="1" lines="5">

<clef shape="G" line="2"/>

<keySig sig="5f"/>

<meterSig count="3" unit="4"/>

</staffDef>

</staffGrp>

</scoreDef>

<section>

<measure metcon="false">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<rest dur="4"/>

</layer>

<layer n="2" cue="true">

<clef shape="F" line="4"/>

<note dur="4" oct="2" pname="f"/>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<mRest/>

</layer>

<layer n="2" cue="true">

<note dur="2" oct="2" pname="b" accid.ges="f"/>

<note dur="4" oct="2" pname="f"/>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

<measure n="2">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<rest dur="4"/>

<rest dur="4"/>

<clef shape="G" line="2"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="b" accid.ges="f"/>

</layer>

<layer n="2" cue="true">

<note dur="2" oct="2" pname="b" accid.ges="f"/>

</layer>

</staff>

</measure>

</section>

</score>

If the voice from which the cue notes originate is also encoded, they should refer to their sounding counterpart with the corresp attribute.

Cue notes must not be confused with other small notes such as grace notes or fiorituras.

4.3.9Directives and Rehearsal marks

In CMN scores, there is often a large number of natural language instructions. Some of them concern the loudness and the speed of the performance, in which case MEI offers the elements dynam (described at 4.3.3 Dynamics in CMN) and tempo. In other cases, however, they provide other instructions for the performer. Instead of providing separate elements for all possible types of such directions, MEI offers the generic dir element. Although this element is not CMN specific (it is defined in 2 Shared Concepts in MEI), it is frequently used in this repertoire.

4.3.10Repetition in CMN

Repetition is a characteristic feature of music. Many musical forms rely on repetition (sometimes with modification) of distinct sections of the music. Repetition in this sense can be thought of as ‘structural’. At the same time, composers and engravers of music often use local symbols for repeating smaller portions of music instead of writing them in full more than once. In this case, the repetition is better defined as a species of abbreviation.

4.4.1Encoding Common To All Ornaments

When encoding CMN, ornaments should be encoded within a measure, following the staff elements, and connected to events on the staff via attributes. The startid attribute is used to refer to the xml:id of the starting note. Additionally, if the ornament involves more than one events on the staff, the endid attribute can be used to anchor the ornament to a concluding event.

The following example demonstrates the encoding of a mordent over a middle C:

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="c" xml:id="co_1_n1"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<mordent place="above" staff="1" startid="#co_1_n1"/>

</measure>

Alternatively, the relationship of an ornament to a note can be expressed in terms of beats with the attribute tstamp. If the ornament involves more than one event on the staff, the tstamp2 attribute can be used to indicate the ending time stamp, as is explained in section 4.2.6 Timestamps and Durations. These methods may also be utilized simultaneously.

The following example shows the use of tstamp for an ornament. Assuming that the following measure is in 2/2, the ornament (in this case, a mordent) is related to the note on the second beat.

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="2" oct="4" pname="c"/>

<note dur="2" oct="4" pname="c"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<mordent place="below" staff="1" tstamp="2"/>

</measure>

The relationship between an ornament and the notes on staff must always be encoded. It is, in fact, a semantic error not to specify a starting event or time stamp for an ornament.

In their resolution, ornaments will involve auxiliary notes, which typically follow the key signature or the scale of the current key. When the ornament involves other chromatic auxiliaries, an accidental is expressed next to or above the ornament sign. The attributes accidlower and accidupper, available on all ornaments described in this chapter, can be used to record this accidental. The attribute values ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ indicate whether the accidental is associated with an upper or lower auxiliary note, not the position of the accidental sign.

4.4.2Mordents

A mordent is an ornament that involves an auxiliary note a step above or below the principal note. The presence of a mordent is encoded with the mordent element and its attributes:

It is recommended, but not required, to use the attribute form to encode the typology of mordents. Two common types are supported: those mordents that involve a note lower than the principal note, and those that involve a note higher than the principal note.

The attribute form accepts the following values:

upper: usually corresponding to the symbol: . This mordent is commonly performed as the principal note, followed by its upper neighbor, with a return to the principal note.

lower: usually corresponding to the symbol: . This mordent is commonly performed as the principal note, followed by its lower neighbor, with a return to the principal note.

The following example demonstrates the encoding of simple mordents:

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="c" stem.dir="down"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="g" stem.dir="up"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="b" stem.dir="down"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="c" stem.dir="down"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<mordent form="upper" staff="1" tstamp="1"/>

</measure>

Occasionally, mordents can be longer, employing five notes instead of three. The long attribute can be used to identify mordents of this type. The following example shows the encoding of a long mordent:

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="c" stem.dir="down"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="g" stem.dir="up"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="b" stem.dir="down"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="c" stem.dir="down"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<mordent form="upper" long="true" staff="1" tstamp="1"/>

</measure>

4.4.3Trills

Trills are a type of ornament that consists of a rapid alternation of a note with one a semitone or tone above. A trill is encoded with the trill element and its attributes:

Trills in modern notation are usually expressed with the abbreviation "tr" above a note on the staff. Often the abbreviation is followed by a wavy line that indicates the length of the trill.

The following example demonstrates the encoding of simple trills:

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="f" stem.dir="up"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="a" stem.dir="up"/>

<rest dur="8"/>

<note dur="8" oct="5" pname="c" stem.dir="down"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="e" stem.dir="down"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<trill place="above" staff="1" tstamp="1"/>

<trill accidupper="f" place="above" staff="1" tstamp="2"/>

<trill place="above" staff="1" tstamp="3.5"/>

<trill accidupper="s" place="above" staff="1" tstamp="4"/>

</measure>

It has been specified earlier that it is a semantic error not to encode a starting event or time stamp for an ornament. This starting point of a trill can be expressed with the startid attribute and/or with the tstamp attribute. Specifying the end point is not required, although the tstamp2 or endid attribute may be used to imply the use of a wavy line extender as shown in this example:

<score>

<scoreDef>

<staffGrp>

<staffDef clef.line="2" clef.shape="G" keysig="2f" lines="5" n="1"/>

</staffGrp>

</scoreDef>

<section>

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="f" xml:id="n1"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="d" xml:id="n2"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="d" xml:id="n3"/>

<note dur="4" oct="4" pname="g" xml:id="n4"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<trill place="above" staff="1" startid="#n1" endid="#n2"/>

<trill place="above" staff="1" startid="#n2" endid="#n3"/>

<trill accidupper="n" place="above" staff="1" startid="#n3" endid="#n4"/>

<trill accidupper="f" place="above" staff="1" startid="#n4" tstamp2="5"/>

</measure>

</section>

</score>

When giving an end point to trills, the extender attribute should also be added, to indicate the presence or absence of a line extender. Notice, that the note referenced in endid is not part of the trill itself, just like in glissandos.

Chromatic alterations of auxiliary notes are occasionally expressed on the staff using small notes enclosed in parentheses, as shown in the example below. However, the attribute accidupper is still to be used to encode the alteration. Display of the auxiliary note in this ‘cautionary’ manner is left to down-stream rendering processes.

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="2" oct="4" pname="g" stem.dir="up"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<trill accidupper="f" place="above" staff="1" tstamp="1"/>

</measure>

Some trills may be introduced by a turn or followed by an inverted turn leading to the next note (see Le garzantine, Musica 2003, p. 911). In such cases, the trill is encoded as in previous examples and associated with the principal note. Starting or concluding turns are notated on the staff (in layer) as 4.2.5.1.2 Grace Notes.

The following example, from a keyboard sonata by Joseph Haydn, shows a trill with concluding grace notes (called Nachschlag):

<measure n="2">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note accid.ges="s" dur="32" grace="acc" oct="6" pname="c" stem.dir="up"/>

<note dur="2" oct="5" pname="b" stem.dir="down"/>

<graceGrp attach="pre" grace="unacc">

<beam>

<note dur="32" oct="5" pname="a" stem.dir="up"/>

<note dur="32" oct="5" pname="b" stem.dir="up"/>

</beam>

</graceGrp>

</layer>

</staff>

<trill place="above" staff="1" tstamp="1" tstamp2="3" vo="6.5"/>

</measure>

4.4.4Turns

A turn is an ornament that typically consists of four notes: the upper neighbor of the principal note, the principal note, the lower neighbor, and the principal note again.

The presence of a turn is encoded with the turn element and its attributes:

It is recommended, but not required, to use the attribute form to encode the typology of the turn.

The attribute form accepts the following values:

upper: usually corresponding to the symbol: . This turn is commonly performed beginning on a note higher than the principal note.

lower: usually corresponding to the symbol: . This turn is commonly performed beginning on a note lower than the principal note.

The following example shows the encoding of a simple turn:

<measure n="1">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="c" stem.dir="down"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="d" stem.dir="down"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="e" stem.dir="down"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="c" stem.dir="down"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<turn form="upper" staff="1" tstamp="1"/>

</measure>

Turns can sometimes be performed after the principal note (usually on the second half of the beat, see Read 1979, p. 246) and leading to the following event. To indicate this, the turn symbol is typically written in between the principal note and the next. These kind of turns are encoded with the attribute delayed.

The following example from Beethoven’s piano sonata no. 1 in F minor, op. 2, no. 1, mvmt. 2 demonstrates the encoding of turns with the delayed attribute. Note that the tstamp attribute indicates the actual starting point in time, while startid points to the principal note.

<measure>

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dots="1" dur="4" oct="5" pname="g" stem.dir="down" tie="i"/>

<beam>

<note dots="1" dur="16" oct="5" pname="g" stem.dir="down" tie="t"/>

<note dur="32" oct="5" pname="a" stem.dir="down"/>

</beam>

</layer>

</staff>

<turn accidlower="s" delayed="true" place="above" staff="1" tstamp="2.75"/>

</measure>

4.4.5Other Ornaments

CMN ornaments that are not mordents, trills, or turns can be encoded with a generic ornam.

This element allows the encoder to represent ornaments as textual strings (e.g., with a Unicode symbol) or with a user defined symbol. Chromatic auxiliaries can be represented with accidlower and accidupper. The ornam element can also be a control element. That is, it can be linked via its attributes to other events. The starting point of the directive may be indicated by either a tstamp, tstamp.ges, tstamp.real or startid attribute, while the ending point may be recorded by either a tstamp2, dur, dur.ges or endid attribute. It is a semantic error not to specify a starting point attribute.

For example, Johann Sebastian Bach used non-standard ornaments in the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach:

The ornament for (5) doppelt-cadence could be encoded in the following way, by adopting the Unicode code-points defined by the SMuFL standard:

<ornam tstamp="1">

<symbol glyph.auth="smufl" glyph.num="#xE5C0" glyph.name="ornamentPrecompDoubleCadenceLowerPrefix"/>

</ornam>

A resolution, or expansion of the ornament can be provided as discussed in 4.4.3.1 Special Cases below.

4.4.6Ornaments in Combinations

Particularly in baroque keyboard music, but also in the early classical period, various combinations of ornaments can be found. Despite being written vertically above the same note, they are to be performed in sequence.

The following example from Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach’s song Dorinde Wq 199/7 shows a turn followed by a inverted mordent:

When encoding the example above, both ornaments will be positioned above the same note. The encoded order of the elements, moreover, may correspond to the performed sequence, which in this example is top to bottom: first the turn, then the mordent. As every renderer deals differently with such combined ornaments it is best practice to encode the performed sequence additionally with next and prev attributes. The visual order can be specified globally with aboveorder in the preceding scoreDef.

<measure n="3">

<staff n="1">

<layer n="1">

<note dur="8" grace="unknown" oct="5" pname="f" stem.dir="up"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="e" stem.dir="down" xml:id="ex_m3_n1"/>

<beam>

<note dur="16" oct="5" pname="d" stem.dir="up"/>

<note accid="s" dur="16" oct="4" pname="f" stem.dir="up"/>

<note dur="16" oct="4" pname="g" stem.dir="up"/>

<note dur="16" oct="5" pname="e" stem.dir="up"/>

</beam>

<note dur="8" grace="unknown" oct="5" pname="d" stem.dir="up"/>

<note dur="4" oct="5" pname="c" stem.dir="down" xml:id="ex_m3_n2"/>

</layer>

</staff>

<mordent xml:id="or_1" form="upper" staff="1" startid="#co_1_m_n1" prev="#or_2"/>

<turn xml:id="or_2" form="upper" staff="1" startid="#co_m_1_n1" next="#or_1"/>

<mordent xml:id="or_3" form="upper" staff="1" startid="#co_m_1_n2" prev="#or_4"/>

<turn xml:id="or_4" form="upper" staff="1" startid="#co_m_1_n2" next="#or_3"/>

</measure>